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This publication has responded to the Ministry for the Environment's call for research into methods for resolving conflict and models of partnership that are appropriate to Maori requirements and are conducive to iwi development and involvement in resource management. The Resource Management Act 1991 requires that those with functions and duties under the Act consult with the tangata whenua, and that they take account of the the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi. Environmental mediation specifically has been developed and practised in North America over the past 15 years or so. Environmental mediation is an informal, non-adversial approach to resolving conflict, and parties participate voluntarily. They are free to create their own process and their own final agreement. Parties are encouraged to concentrate on what they value or their interests, rather than on positions. The studies demonstrated both positive and negative factors from an iwi perspective. Maori parties were given ample opportunities to express their views during mediated disputes. Those with negotiating experience, knowledge of the issues or an awareness of a good alternative to mediation felt empowered in the process. However, the absence of a 'level playing field' in the broader societal context was also apparent. Diversity of interest is more likely to be recognised in non-Maori rather than Maori concerns. Access to information was not equal for all parties nor were the resources available for participation. Enormous sums of money appeared to be available to bring scientific and technical information to the mediation setting whereas iwi representatives bringing cultural or vii spiritual information to the negotiating table did not have access to funds. Processes were driven by Crown agencies and this did not assist Maori groups to advocate their own interests in the way they wished, or to empower them. Participation tended to be reactive rather than proactive. Tribal concerns were sometimes subsumed by other concerns. Recommendations arising from the research are as follows. 1. Investigate the feasibility of establishing a nationalised conflict resolution information service for iwi. 2. Investigate the feasibility of establishing a regional and local service that offers independent advice to iwi on conflict resolution. 3. Investigate means by which people can find out the grounds on which Maori groups are claiming the right to participate, and the nature of that right. 4. Prepare a guide for iwi on opportunities for participation in resource management decision making that are provided in legislation. 5. Investigate potential sources of funding to enable iwi to participate effectively in environmental mediation. 6. Investigate changes that are needed in the Resource Management Act to ensure Maori effectiveness in mediation. 7. Prepare guides on mediation for agencies and individuals that interface with iwi e.g. government departments, regional councils, local authorities, consent use applicants, mediators etc. 8. Investigate methods of cross-cultural environmental information exchange in New Zealand, Canada and Australia. The findings of this publication are directed specifically at iwi.

This article shares lessons for spatial governance in Aotearoa New Zealand in the context of the Treaty of Waitangi. It reports on research into co-creation pathways that supported bicultural spatial governance inclusive of whānau and local communities in the Waimakariri and Rotorua Districts. In alignment with three Treaty principles, local tikanga, unique to the two places, informed the methodological framework for bicultural spatial governance. Despite some commonalities, the two case studies reveal distinctive perspectives that resonate differently across Aotearoa New Zealand, underscoring the importance of co-creation for biculturalism. We consider the implications for biculturalism across a range of spatial contexts and for debates about decolonising governance.

If wilderness is dead, do wild rivers exist and if so, in what form and in whose construction? This reflective article reviews perspectives on rivers in Aotearoa New Zealand as wild or tamed entities. A historical overview of the socio-cultural and institutional relationships with rivers examines the meanings of rivers in Aotearoa New Zealand through multiple lenses. This includes indigenous Māori knowledge, command-and-control mentalities of a settler society that assert human authority over rivers, the emergence of the environmental movement and associated legislation with a sustainability focus (the Resource Management Act), and recent movement towards co-governance arrangements that incorporate the original intent of Te Tiriti o Waitangi (1840). It is contended that management practices have disconnected society from rivers, and vice versa, creating a sense of environmental loss (solastalgia), especially for Māori. Using rivers in the Greater Wellington Region as examples, prospects to accommodate wild river behaviour in Aotearoa New Zealand are explored. Recognising that re-wilding is no longer a feasible option in most instances, further attempts to tame rivers are also considered to be unrealistic, especially in light of climate change and accentuated flood risk. Reconnecting with indigenous knowledge offers prospects to re-imagine wild rivers in Aotearoa, living generatively with rivers as dynamic and emergent entities.

The Treaty of Waitangi forms the underlying foundation of the Crown–Māori relationship with regard to freshwater resources in Āotearoa-New Zealand. While there is no “one” Māori world view, there are principles and values that establish and reinforce whānau, hapū, rūnanga and iwi identity, and their responsibilities and rights to manage and use natural resources, including lakes. Lake restoration approaches that are grounded in tikanga Māori and Māori values and perspectives, and are co-designed to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of Māori, will ensure that outcomes are useful and of benefit to the participating indigenous community. The resulting outcomes are more likely to strengthen and add value to existing community initiatives, thus increasing efficiencies when capacity and capability across different expertise is in demand. This requires a commitment (by agencies and funders) to move beyond conventional understandings of who is “qualified” to engage in lake research and restoration initiatives. While hapū, rūnanga and iwi undoubtedly benefit from having their members qualify by being active participants in lake research and restoration efforts, in this chapter we emphasise the need for a more holistic approach that recognises and empowers whānau to engage as co-governors, co-leaders, researchers, as knowledge holders and as teachers. A truly collaborative lake restoration programme will provide multiple roles for Māori, including the development and implementation of monitoring and evaluation approaches.

This editorial introduction outlines the political and intellectual territory for a Special Issue on Tikanga rua: bicultural spatial governance in Aotearoa New Zealand. The term ‘spatial governance’ refers to deliberative systems with an impact on social and spatial outcomes, including environmental management, town planning, urban design and city-making. Authentic tikanga rua bicultural spatial governance delivers processes and outcomes aligned with the perspectives, values and knowledge of both tangata whenua (people of the land) and tangata Tiriti (people of the Treaty). The research discussed in the Special Issue traverses multiple geographies and contexts and demonstrates the manifold possibilities for biculturalism in contemporary spatial governance. This introduction summarises the contents of each of the substantive papers and provides a Māori-English glossary to assist readers with the key terms used within the issue.

The term 'sustainable development' has been widely used since the latter part of the 20th century. The concept implies economic and social development, economic growth, and environmental responsibility in order to sustain improved standards of living based on economic growth, to achieve some form of social equity, and to manage the environment in a sustainable way. Sustainable development should generally be at a rate that allows future generations to meet their needs without causing degradation of the natural environment, and should avoid economic or social decay. The concept has been debated and criticised by many as being ambiguous, untenable, and difficult to achieve, and frequently labelled part of global capitalism. But the concept provides a challenge to all of us, on how to balance economic, social, and cultural goals, while at the same time safeguarding and responsibly managing the environment for future generations. Attempts by indigenous peoples internationally to achieve sustainable development have been based on holistic approaches and frameworks that seek to balance economic, social, cultural and environmental objectives, and these provide effective models for viable sustainable development approaches. Maori Sustainable Development in Aotearoa-New Zealand is a term often used to describe a pathway to Maori autonomy, self-determination, the building of human and social capacity, as part of a strategic direction to capitalise on opportunities in the 21st century. This paper outlines research undertaken between 1998 and 2002 and funded by the Foundation for Research, Science, and Technology (FRST) in the programme "Maori Sustainable Development in Te Puku o Te Ika", contract UOWX0005, simply referred to as the MSD programme. It focuses on the importance of determining Maori values, a vision, strategic planning and development of information systems as a holistic framework and process method to achieve Maori sustainable development.

In New Zealand, the Crown and Local Authorities are required to engage with iwi in resource management matters, yet iwi engagement is a widely recognised weakness in many resource management professionals' skillsets. Coloniality permeates many interactions with iwi, and reflects a profession where practitioners' skillsets have not kept pace with developments in resource management legislation that better recognise the rights and interests of mana whenua. This article explores the real‐life impacts of this skill paucity on Ngāi Tahu environmental kaitiaki, and, through a Braided River methodological approach comprised of Kaupapa Māori research and Narrative Inquiry, offers recommendations for best practice mana whenua engagement. The article concludes by discussing the coloniality of planning, and how this impacts practitioners' ability to implement these best practice recommendations.

As Aotearoa New Zealand grapples with developing solutions to complex issues surrounding its unique freshwater and marine biological heritage, there is a growing recognition that mātauranga Māori can be ‘unlocked’ and used with great effect alongside western science. Examples where appropriate consideration and development of robust methodologies for the application of mātauranga Māori coexisting alongside western science are increasing. Unfortunately, despite the benefits that can be derived from this collaboration, the quality of engagement is not always satisfactory often due to poor interpersonal relationships and misidentification of the knowledge holders. By providing an appropriately historical context, this article is able to consider the critical issues now facing mātauranga and the Māori knowledge holders today, and fundamental requirements that will empower application of this knowledge within bio-heritage management. We consider how the development of a methodology between mātauranga Māori holders and potential end-users might contribute to improved outcomes for Aotearoa’s biological heritage.

Internationally, Eurocentric hegemonies rooted in coloniality dominate the discourse on environmental wellbeing and sustainable development. Māori frameworks are being used and developed in Aotearoa New Zealand to support bicultural approaches to the management of natural resources and built environments. This paper reports on an Atua (Māori gods and spirits) framework that was found to be valuable as a cultural lens for the co-creation of a toolkit for assessing the wellbeing of indigenous forests. This article provides guidance on the development and application of kaupapa Māori frameworks, particularly Atua frameworks, in wider geographical contexts including urban design and spatial planning.

Contemporary management practices have artificially confined (strangled) river systems in Aotearoa New Zealand to support intensified land use in riparian areas. These practices work against nature, diminishing the functionality and biodiversity values of living rivers, and associated socio-cultural relations with rivers. River confinement can accentuate flood risk by promoting development in vulnerable locations and limiting the flexibility to adapt to changing climate, prospectively accentuating future disasters. To date, uptake of space-to-move management interventions that seek to address such shortcomings is yet to happen in Aotearoa New Zealand. This is despite the fact that such practices directly align with Māori (indigenous) conceptualizations of rivers as indivisible, living entities. Treaty of Waitangi obligations that assert Māori rights alongside colonial rights of a settler society provide an additional driver for uptake of space-to-move initiatives. This article outlines a biophysical prioritization framework to support the development and roll out of space-to-move interventions in ways that work with the character, behavior, condition, and evolutionary trajectory (recovery potential) of each river system in Aotearoa. This article is categorized under: Water and Life > Conservation, Management, and Awareness Science of Water > Water and Environmental Change

Māori customary rights to natural resources are a contentious issue between Māori and the New Zealand government and between Maori and non-Māori. The values and principles inherent in a treaty signed in 1840 between Māori and the British Crown have been undermined by the government’s refusal to allow Māori the right to go to the courts to determine proprietary rights to the foreshore, seabed and fresh water. Discriminatory Crown actions highlight the argument that when an injustice occurs then reparations should be made. The United Nations has chided the New Zealand government for its discriminatory behaviour and failure to provide guaranteed redress but it has had little effect.

Describes, from the perspective of the advocates for Maori claimants, the substance of submissions to and process followed by the United Nations committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD) in determining that the Foreshore and Seabed Act 2004 discriminates against Maori.

Developing equitable marine management systems that recognise Indigenous worldviews, values, and practices, alongside international initiatives such as Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) are paramount in countries which aim to recognise Indigenous rights. This is the case for New Zealand (NZ) where Indigenous-Māori rights to partner with the Government for the purpose of environmental management were guaranteed under the Treaty of Waitangi, 1840, and subsequent Acts (e.g. Resource Management Act, 1991). Our aim was to explore how both Indigenous-Māori and NZ societal values can be integrated into a marine co-management decision-making framework. Here we describe the Waka-Taurua (double-canoe) framework, and how it can be applied in developing a NZ marine management system (NZ-MMS), which includes both kaitiakitanga (a Māori concept of reciprocal care between Indigenous-Māori people and their territorial environment), and EBM, equitably. We argue that the Waka-Taurua framework can improve how marine co-management systems are developed by facilitating a more structured and equitable discussion of both Indigenous-Māori and broader societal worldviews, values, and practices.